Ice & Snow Operations — Winter Warfare

Crampons are essential for ice and hard snow travel. Proper technique prevents fatigue, falls, and dangerous unplanned glissades. Mastery of crampon use is fundamental to winter mountain operations.

Crampon Types:

• 10-Point: General mountaineering—walking on snow
• 12-Point: Technical mountaineering—better security on steep ice
• Vertical Front Points: Technical ice climbing—mono or dual points
• Horizontal Front Points: Alpine climbing—mixed terrain
• Attachment Systems: Step-in (cramp-on), strap-on (universal), hybrid

Cramponing Techniques:

• Flat Foot (French Technique): Entire crampon contacts slope—least tiring
• Front Pointing: Front points engage, heel elevated—steep ice
• Hybrid: One foot flat, other front pointing—moderate slopes
• Duck Foot: Toes outward for traversing—prevents calf strain
• Pigeon Toe: Toes inward—useful for specific terrain

Flat Footing (French Technique):

• All 10-12 points in contact with surface
• Ankles rolled inward slightly—engages side points
• Weight distributed across all points
• Most efficient for slopes up to 40 degrees
• Practice on low-angle terrain first

Front Pointing:

• Front points driven into ice/snow
• Heels elevated—calves work hard
• Short steps—don't over-reach
• Keep weight over front points
• Rest by dropping heel when possible
• Very strenuous—use only when necessary

Crampon Safety:

• Always wear crampons with appropriate boots—rated B1-B3
• Check fit before climbing—no movement between boot and crampon
• Antibot plates prevent snow balling underfoot
• File points when dull—sharp points bite better
• Crampons are sharp—handle carefully, use point protectors
• Never glissade with crampons—catching points causes injury

Descending with Crampons:

• Flat foot preferred for moderate slopes
• Face outward (penguin style) for steeper descents
• Short, controlled steps
• Ice axe in self-belay or self-arrest position
• Consider removing crampons if snow softens significantly

The ice axe is the most versatile tool in mountaineering. It serves as a walking stick, anchor, self-arrest tool, and emergency brake. Proficiency with the ice axe is mandatory for safe glacier and steep snow travel.

Ice Axe Anatomy:

• Head: Adze (hollow) and pick (pointed) ends
• Shaft: Straight (classic) or curved (technical)
• Spike: Pointed end for plunging into snow
• Carabiner Hole: For leash attachment
• Grip: Textured surface for hand placement

Ice Axe Selection:

• Length: Held at spike, should reach ankle (standing)
• Weight: Lighter for technical, heavier for general mountaineering
• Shaft: Straight for self-arrest, curved for technical ice
• Pick: Aggressive curve for ice, moderate for alpine
• Certification: CE/UIAA rated for strength

Carrying Positions:

• Self-Arrest Position: Pick forward, adze back, thumb under head
• Trail Position: Spike forward, pick back, cane-style
• Storage: Head down, pick forward, through pack loop
• Stow for Climbing: Attached to harness when not in use

Self-Belay (Self-Arrest Grip):

• Pick oriented forward, point down
• Thumb under head, fingers over top
• Plunge spike into snow for stability
• Used for security on steep slopes
• Quick transition to self-arrest if needed

Self-Arrest:

The self-arrest is an emergency braking maneuver. Practice until instinctive.

• Head Uphill: Roll onto stomach, face downhill
• Axe Position: Diagonal across body, pick digging into snow
• Arms: Straight, weight on axe head
• Legs: Spread, toes digging in (front point style)
• Head: Protected by uphill arm
• Practice on safe slopes before relying on technique

Ice Axe Anchors:

• Bollard: Ice axe as anchor point—emergency only
• T-Slot: Buried axe as deadman anchor
• Snow Bollard: Carved snow anchor for rappel
• Picket Companion: Axe used in conjunction with snow picket

Snow climbing on steep slopes requires specific techniques for security and efficiency. Snow conditions vary from powder to névé (hard, consolidated snow) to ice, requiring adaptable skills.

Snow Conditions:

• Powder: Soft, unconsolidated—difficult for crampons
• Spring Snow: Softens during day, refreezes at night—best climbing window
• Névé: Hard, consolidated snow—excellent cramponing
• Corn: Frozen granules—stable in morning, hazardous when warming
• Ice: Hard frozen surface—requires front pointing
• Crust: Hard surface over soft snow—breaks through unexpectedly

Kicking Steps:

• Front-kick for hard snow—crampons engage
• Flat-foot kick for soft snow—platform creation
• Short, rhythmic steps maintain rhythm and conserve energy
• Step into existing steps when following (easy path)
• Leader must kick solid, level platforms

Step Cutting:

• Using ice axe adze to cut steps in hard snow/ice
• Classic technique before crampons were common
• Useful when crampons unavailable or on mixed terrain
• Cut flat, level platforms slightly larger than boot
• Downward and inward chopping motion
• Time-consuming but provides secure footing

Resting on Steep Snow:

• Drop Knee: Lower uphill knee, weight back
• Stem: Wide stance for stability
• Chimney: Using opposing pressure if features available
• Ice Axe Plunge: Secure axe for brief rest
• Take frequent short rests—prevent exhaustion

Protection on Snow:

• Snow Pickets: Aluminum stakes driven into snow
• Flukes: Snow anchors with cable—bury like deadman
• Bollards: Carved snow horns for rappel anchor
• Ice Screws: If snow is frozen hard enough
• Running Belays: Moving protection on long snow slopes
• Simul-Climbing: Both climbers move together with protection between

Rope Team Travel:

• 2-4 climbers roped together on glacier or steep snow
• Equal spacing between climbers
• Keep rope taut—slack creates fall potential
• If one falls, others self-arrest immediately
• Practice crevasse rescue techniques
• Pre-rig prusiks for self-rescue

Mixed terrain combines rock, ice, and snow in the same route. This is common in alpine environments where conditions change rapidly. Adaptability and efficient transitions are key.

Mixed Terrain Challenges:

• Changing techniques—crampon to rock shoe transitions
• Protection placement varies by medium
• Route finding through complex terrain
• Weather exposure on mixed routes
• Rockfall from warming snow/ice above
• Time management through technical sections

Transitions:

• Crampon to Rock: Flat foot on rock damages points and rock
• Removing Crampons: Secure location, don't drop them
• Storing Crampons: Attach to harness or pack securely
• Rock to Snow: Put crampons on before committing to steep snow
• Time Management: Transitions take time—plan accordingly

Cramponing on Rock:

• Generally avoided—damages crampons and rock
• Short sections: careful flat-footing
• Use rubber crampon protectors if carrying rock shoes
• Front pointing on rock destroys front points
• Better to remove crampons for extended rock sections

Mixed Protection:

• Ice screws for ice sections
• Rock protection (cams, nuts) for rock sections
• Snow anchors for snow sections
• Transition zones require planning
• Rack organization critical for efficiency

Route Selection in Mixed Terrain:

• Look for continuous features—ridges, gullies
• Avoid loose rock overlaid by snow
• Consider sun exposure—shaded sections stay icy
• Time of day affects conditions significantly
• Retreat options should be identified
• Weather windows may be short

Efficiency:

Mixed terrain is physically and mentally demanding. Efficient movement, minimal transitions, and solid route-finding are essential. When in doubt, choose the more conservative option—mixed routes have a way of becoming more difficult than anticipated.

Winter warfare presents unique tactical challenges. Cold, snow, and limited daylight affect operations. Military units must adapt tactics, equipment, and procedures for winter mountain environments.

Tactical Considerations:

• Movement: Slower in snow, tracks visible, restricted to corridors
• Concealment: White uniforms essential, tracks betray positions
• Communication: Cold affects batteries, voice carries in cold air
• Weapons: Cold weather lubricants, ice in mechanisms
• Night Operations: Longer nights favor surprise, extreme cold risk
• Air Support: Limited by weather, altitude, and visibility

Equipment in Winter:

• Weapons: Arctic lubricants, regular function checks
• Optics: Anti-fog measures, cold affects batteries
• Radios: Keep batteries warm, spare batteries essential
• Sleep Systems: Rated for extreme cold, vapor barrier liners
• Stoves: White gas performs better than butane in extreme cold
• Snowshoes/Skis: Essential for mobility in deep snow

Winter Bivouac:

• Site selection critical—wind protection paramount
• Snow shelters insulate better than tents
• Group sleeping conserves body heat
• Melt snow for water—dehydration risk in cold
• High calorie intake—metabolism increases in cold
• Boots in sleeping bag—prevent freezing

Winter Hazards:

• Avalanche: Constant threat on steep snow slopes
• Cold Injuries: Frostbite, hypothermia, trench foot
• Crevasse Falls: Hidden under snow bridges
• Whiteout: Complete loss of visibility
• Cornice Collapse: Overhanging snow ledges
• Ice Fall: Serac collapse, falling ice from above

AMWS Winter Cycle:

• December through February classes operate in full winter conditions
• Ice climbing added to curriculum
• Winter survival skills emphasized
• Cold weather injuries prevention training
• Avalanche awareness and safety
• Snow shelter construction

Winter Mindset:

Winter mountain warfare demands respect for the environment. The margin for error narrows in extreme cold. Preparation, proper equipment, and conservative decision-making are survival imperatives. The winter mountain is indifferent to human ambition—work with it, not against it.