Waterborne Operations

Individual crossing techniques are the foundation of waterborne operations. Each soldier must be able to safely cross water obstacles while maintaining combat load and weapon.

Wading Techniques:

• Diagonal Crossing: Move upstream at 45-degree angle to compensate for downstream drift
• Side-Step Method: Face upstream, shuffle sideways; most stable for strong current
• Staff Technique: Use pole or rifle for additional support points
• Buddy System: Link arms with partner for mutual support

Preparation:

• Waterproof all gear: use waterproof bags, trash bags, or ponchos
• Secure loose items that could float away
• Tighten load-bearing equipment to prevent shifting
• Secure weapon to body with sling
• Button all pockets to prevent water filling and dragging

Crossing Procedure:

• Test depth and bottom before entering
• Enter at selected entry point; maintain weapon above water
• Move slowly, testing each step before weight transfer
• Face upstream if current is significant
• Exit quickly at far bank; establish security

Safety Procedures:

• Establish downstream safety (swimmer with rope) for each crossing
• Life preservers or flotation for non-swimmers
• Never cross alone; minimum two personnel
• Abort crossing if depth exceeds chest or current is too strong

If Swept Away:

• Assume defensive swimming position: on back, feet downstream, head upstream
• Keep knees bent to absorb impacts with obstacles
• Use arms to maneuver; backstroke toward shore
• Never attempt to stand in fast current until in shallow water
• Signal for help but maintain swimming position

Equipment Recovery:

If equipment is dropped, do not dive after it. Mark the location mentally. Attempt recovery only after reaching safety and if conditions permit. Lost equipment is less important than lost personnel.

Combat swimming differs dramatically from recreational swimming. Equipment adds weight, reduces mobility, and creates entanglement hazards. Specialized techniques are essential for survival.

Equipment Considerations:

• Weight: Combat load (35-50 lbs) increases drowning risk significantly
• Flotation: Some items float (empty magazines, plastic), others sink rapidly
• Entanglement: Slings, straps, and loose gear can snag on submerged obstacles
• Mobility: Restricted arm and leg movement due to equipment

Pre-Swim Preparation:

• Jettison non-essential heavy equipment if emergency swimming is required
• Secure all loose straps with tape or rubber bands
• Create flotation from available materials: empty rucksack as flotation device
• Waterproof essential items: maps, radios, ammunition
• Weapon: sling tight to body or attach to flotation device

Combat Swimming Techniques:

• Survival Float: Minimize energy expenditure; hold position in water
• Vertical position; gentle sculling with hands
• Bob to breathe; exhale underwater, inhale above surface
• Use for resting when unable to reach shore
• Tired Swimmer Carry: Rescue technique for exhausted personnel
• Approach from behind to avoid panic response
• Hook arm across chest, support with hip
• Side-stroke or elementary backstroke to shore
• Equipment Swim: Moving with full load
• Use rucksack as flotation: inflate or trap air inside
• Modified breaststroke or sidestroke
• Keep head above water for observation

Clothing and Boots:

• Remove boots for long swims only; keep for protection in short crossings
• Uniforms create drag but provide some insulation
• Trap air in clothing for additional flotation
• BDU/ACU pants can be used as flotation device: knot legs, scoop air, hold around neck

Tactical Swimming:

• Low profile: keep body submerged, expose only head and weapon
• Silent swimming: minimize splashing, use smooth strokes
• Direction changes: use bottom or vegetation as reference points
• Rest stops: use floating debris, shallow bars, or vegetation islands

Water Confidence Training:

Build confidence progressively: swimming without equipment, then with uniform, then with partial load, finally with full combat load. Practice in controlled conditions before attempting operational swimming.

Expedient rafts enable movement of personnel and equipment across water obstacles too wide or dangerous for individual crossing. Jungle materials provide excellent raft-building resources.

Raft Types:

• Log Raft: Most durable; requires tools for cutting and lashing
• 10-15 logs 6-8 feet long, 4-6 inches diameter
• Cross-members at 1/3 and 2/3 points
• Lash with vines, cordage, or 550 cord
• Bamboo Raft: Excellent flotation; naturally buoyant
• 8-12 bamboo poles 8-10 feet long
• Green bamboo is more buoyant than dry
• Lash with cross-pieces at ends and center
• Brush Raft: Expedient when no suitable logs available
• Bundle small branches and brush
• Wrap in tarp or poncho
• Short-duration use only
• Inflatable Raft: Commercial or military; pack in rucksack

Construction Techniques:

• Material Selection: Straight, sound, similar diameter logs; avoid rotten wood
• Lashing Methods:
  • Square lashing: for 90-degree joints
  • Diagonal lashing: for crossed members under stress
  • Shear lashing: for parallel members
• Decking: Add cross-pieces for standing surface and equipment security
• Thwarts: Seats that also serve as cross-members for structural integrity

Capacity Planning:

• Calculate buoyancy: green wood displaces approximately 50% of its weight
• Allow 200% safety margin for combat loads
• Test raft near shore before committing to crossing
• Distribute weight evenly; keep center of gravity low

Raft Operation:

• Paddling: Personnel on opposite sides paddling in unison
• Poles: Push off bottom in shallow water; more control than paddling
• Current Navigation: Angle upstream to compensate for drift
• Steering: Rear paddler steers; front paddler provides power

Tactical Considerations:

• Rafts are vulnerable; conduct crossing at night or under concealment when possible
• Establish far-side security before launching
• Maintain noise discipline; avoid metal-on-metal contact
• Multiple rafts maintain dispersion; avoid bunching
• Plan recovery method: retrieve rafts for return trips or cache for exfiltration

Expedient Flotation Devices:

When raft construction isn't feasible, create individual flotation:

• Empty waterproofed rucksacks trap air
• Poncho wrapped around vegetation bundle
• Log flotation: single log with body draped across
• Link multiple devices for personnel without flotation

Water provides both concealment and vulnerability. Tactical water movement minimizes exposure while using waterways as avenues of approach and communication.

Water as Avenue of Approach:

• Rivers provide natural corridors through dense vegetation
• Enemy may not expect approach from water
• Water travel is faster than cutting trails through jungle
• Concealment from vegetation overhanging waterways

Movement Techniques:

• Bank Movement: Travel along shoreline maintaining tree line concealment
• Waterline Movement: Float or swim in shallow water along bank
• Channel Movement: Travel in main channel; faster but more exposed
• Island Hopping: Use mid-stream islands or bars for rest and reconnaissance

Concealment:

• Use river bends to mask approach
• Travel at night when thermal optics reduce water detection advantages
• Stay close to bank vegetation; avoid open water
• Submerge when aircraft or threat detected
• Minimize wake and noise; smooth, slow movement

Security Measures:

• Point swimmer/scout ahead of main element
• Flank security observers on banks when possible
• Rear security trailing behind
• Establish rally points on both banks at regular intervals
• Pre-arranged signals for contact or emergency

Halts and Rest:

• Identify rest points before departing
• Mid-stream bars and islands preferred for 360-degree security
• Bank rest points: select with immediate withdrawl route to water
• Keep equipment ready for immediate water re-entry
• Security rotation: rest half while half maintains watch

Equipment Management:

• Waterproof all items even in rafts; capsize risk always present
• Secure equipment to raft or body; tether critical items
• Weapons: maintain immediate access while preventing submersion
• Dry ammunition and magazines at every opportunity
• Check equipment function after water exposure

Portage Operations:

• Identify portage points around dangerous rapids or obstacles
• Maintain security during portage; most vulnerable when out of water
• Cache rafts if returning by same route
• Mark cache location for recovery

Waterborne infiltration and exfiltration are high-risk, high-reward operations. Proper planning and execution enable entry and exit where enemy least expects.

Infiltration Planning:

• Insertion Points: Upstream of objective; use current to assist approach
• Timeline: Account for slower movement than land travel
• Weather: Monitor for flash flood conditions; avoid during heavy rain
• Objective Distance: Offset landing point from objective; approach overland
• Contingencies: Alternative insertion points and emergency extraction

Launch Procedures:

• Final equipment check; waterproof validation
• Establish departure time line
• Security during launch: overwatch prevents compromise
• Silent entry: no splashing, controlled launch
• Immediate dispersal once on water; avoid bunching

Approach Techniques:

• Navigate by river features: bends, islands, confluences
• Maintain noise discipline; voices carry over water
• Use river sounds to mask your own noise
• Periodical stops to listen and observe
• Avoid predictable timing; vary speed and pattern

Extraction Planning:

• Pre-arranged extraction points with time windows
• Multiple extraction options for flexibility
• Downstream of objective; use current for escape
• Security at extraction point: arrive early, establish overwatch
• Signal methods: visual, audio, or electronic

Emergency Procedures:

• Man Overboard: Immediate stop; downstream safety rescue
• Equipment Loss: Mark location; continue if non-critical
• Injury: Stabilize on shore; call for MEDEVAC if severe
• Contact: Immediate shore movement; establish defensive position
• Lost: Follow river downstream; most rivers lead to civilization

Recovery Operations:

• Account for all personnel before leaving water
• Equipment inventory; note all losses
• Dry and maintain weapons immediately
• Reconstitute rations and water
• Medical check: immersion injuries, leeches, waterborne illness symptoms

Advanced Considerations:

• Underwater breathing apparatus for extended sub-surface travel
• Combat Rubber Raiding Craft (CRRC) for squad-level operations
• Helicopter casting and recovery techniques
• Submarine lock-out/lock-in procedures
• Combat diving for clandestine approach